Critical Issues in Assessing Occupational Exposure to Diesel Dust Exhaust
Main Article Content
Keywords
diesel engine exhaust, particulate matter, elemental carbon, black carbon, occupational exposure
Abstract
The Italian Interministerial Decree of February 11, 2021, introduces the diesel engine exhaust (DDE) among the carcinogenic occupational compounds, also establishing an occupational exposure limit. Elemental carbon (EC), improperly called black carbon, has been proposed as a tracer of DDE exposure; EC is the carbon that is quantified in the ambient matrixes after all the organic carbon has been removed; traditionally, EC is measured with a thermo-optical analytical technique. EC determination and relative interpretation are challenging for the following reasons: (i) the scarce availability of equipped laboratories hampers EC analysis, (ii) EC interpretation is not easy due to the lack of reference values. Finally, (iii) the limit value of 0.050 mg/m3 of EC in the workplace appears too high compared to recently published exposure data. All these aspects stimulate a reflection on the significance of EC data in the context of both occupational hygiene and occupational medicine.
References
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53. Vermeulen R, Portengen L. How serious are we about protecting workers health? The case of diesel engine exhaust. Occup Environ Med. Aug 2022;79(8):540-542. Doi:10.1136/oemed-2021-107752
54. Vermeulen R, Silverman DT, Garshick E, Vlaanderen J, Portengen L, Steenland K. Exposure-Response Esti-mates for Diesel Engine Exhaust and Lung Cancer Mortality Based on Data from Three Occupational Cohorts. En-vironmental Health Perspectives. Feb 2014;122(2):172-177. Doi:10.1289/ehp.1306880
2. IARC Monographs. Exposure as a firefighter. 2023
3. Silverman DT, Bassig BA, Lubin J, et al. The Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study (DEMS) II: Temporal Factors Related to Diesel Exhaust Exposure and Lung Cancer Mortality in the Nested Case-Control Study. Environ Health Perspect. Aug 2023;131(8):87002. Doi:10.1289/EHP11980
4. IARC Monographs. Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts and some Nitroarenes. 2013
5. Roadmap on Carcinogens. The facts on diesel engine exhaust. Available on line: https://roadmaponcarcinogens.eu/dieselexhaust (accessed on 7 February 2024)
6. International Labour Office (ILO). Exposure to hazardous chemicals at work and resulting health impacts: A global review. Geneva, Switzerland 2021
7. Ministero del Lavoro e Politiche Sociali Ministero della Sanità. Decreto Interministeriale 11 Febbraio 2021. GU Serie Generale n 44 del 22 2 2021
8. European Parliament. Directive (EU) 2019/130 of 16 January 2019 amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens at work.
9. Decreto Legislativo 44/2020. Attuazione della direttiva (UE) 2017/2398 del Parlamento europeo e del Consi-glio, del 12 dicembre 2017, che modifica la direttiva 2004/37/CE del Consiglio, relativa alla protezione dei la-voratori contro i rischi derivanti da un'esposizione ad agenti cancerogeni o mutageni durante il lavoro. GU (Serie Generale) n°145 del 9 Giugno 2020.
10. Garshick E, Laden F, Hart JE, Davis ME, Eisen EA, Smith TJ. Lung cancer and elemental carbon exposure in trucking industry workers. Environ Health Perspect. Sep 2012;120(9):1301-6. Doi:10.1289/ehp.1204989
11. European Commission. SCOEL/OPIN/403. Diesel Engine Exhaust. Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure
Limits; Adopted 21 December 2016. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/299599
12. AIDII, Associazione Italiana Igienisti Industriali, ente terzo settore. Esposizione occupazionale a emissioni di gas di scarico dei motori diesel. 30/03/2023:4. www.aidii.it
13. Schauer JJ. Evaluation of elemental carbon as a marker for diesel particulate matter. J Expo Anal Environ Epi-demiol. Nov 2003;13(6):443-53. Doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500298
14. Kim J, Peters CE, Arrandale VH, et al. Burden of lung cancer attributable to occupational diesel engine exhaust exposure in Canada. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Sep 2018;75(9):617-622. Doi:10.1136/oemed-2017-104950
15. Richiardi L, Mirabelli D, Calisti R, et al. Occupational exposure to diesel exhausts and risk for lung cancer in a population-based case-control study in Italy. Annals of Oncology. Dec 2006;17(12):1842-1847. Doi:10.1093/annonc/mdl307
16. Diaz-Sanchez D, Riedl M. Diesel effects on human health: a question of stress? American Journal of Physiolo-gy-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. Nov 2005;289(5):L722-L723. Doi:10.1152/ajplung.00217.2005
17. Sorokina AS, Burov EA, Koshelev VN, Ivanova LV, Shaidullina GM, Rakov DV. Chromatographic Methods of In-vestigation of Hydrocarbon Composition of Diesel Fuels. Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils. Nov 2021;57(5):770-776. Doi:10.1007/s10553-021-01305-z
18. Resitoglu IA, Altinisik K, Keskin A. The pollutant emissions from diesel-engine vehicles and exhaust after-treatment systems. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy. Jan 2015;17(1):15-27. Doi:10.1007/s10098-014-0793-9
19. Twigg MV, Phillips PR. Cleaning the Air We Breathe - Controlling Diesel Particulate Emissions from Passenger Cars. Platinum Metals Review. Jan 2009;53(1):27-34. Doi:10.1595/147106709x390977
20. Schneider C.G. and Hill L.B. Diesel and Health in America: The Lingering Threat. Clean Air Task Force. 2005. www.catf.us
21. Kristensen K. Air Pollution in Airports Ultrafine particles, solutions and succesful cooperation. The Danish Ecocouncil. www.ecocouncil.dk; 2012.
22. OSHWIKI. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Exposure to dusts and aerosols-diesel exhaust. Last update 21/10/2020.
23. Piia Taxell TS. 149. Diesel Engine Exhaust. ARBETE OCH HALSA SCIENTIFIC SERIAL. UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG. 2016.
24. IARC. IARC:DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST CARCINOGENIC. Press Release N°213, June 12, 2012.
25. Rosner G. Diesel fuel and exhaust emissions. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1996
26. Lim J, Lim C, Jung S. Characterizations of Size-segregated Ultrafine Particles in Diesel Exhaust. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2021;21(5):200356. Doi:10.4209/aaqr.200356
27. NIOSH, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM), 5th Edition. 2020
28. Kwon HS, Ryu MH, Carlsten C. Ultrafine particles: unique physicochemical properties relevant to health and disease. Experimental and Molecular Medicine. Mar 2020;52(3):318-328. Doi:10.1038/s12276-020-0405-1
29. UNI EN 14530:2005. Atmospheres in the Workplace - Determination of Diesel Particulate Matter - General Requirements
30. UNI EN 481:1994 Atmosphere in the work environment. Definition of particle size fractions for the meas-urement of airborne particles
31. UNI EN 16909:2017. Ambient Air - Determination of elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) depos-ited on filters
32. UNI EN 12341:2014. Ambient Air - Gravimetric reference method for the determination of the mass concen-tration of suspended particulte matter PM10 or PM2.5
33. ISO 18158:2016. Workplace air - Terminology
34. Ramachandran G, Watts WF. Statistical comparison of diesel particulate matter measurement methods. Aiha Journal. May-Jun 2003;64(3):329-337
35. Pronk A, Coble J, Stewart PA. Occupational exposure to diesel engine exhaust: A literature review. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology. Jul-Aug 2009;19(5):443-457. Doi:10.1038/jes.2009.21
36. Decreto Ministeriale 05/5/2015 GU, Allegato I. Metodo di campionamento e di analisi per la misura delle concentrazioni di massa totale e per speciazione chimica del materiale particolato PM10 e PM 2.5
37. Viana Mar QX, Alastuey Andres, Reche Cristina, Favez Olivier, Malherbe Laure, Ustache Aurelien, Bartonova Alena, Liu Hai-Ying, Guerriero Cristina. Particle number (PNC) and black carbon (BC) in European urban air quality networks. 2012
38. Birch ME, Cary RA. Elemental carbon-based method for monitoring occupational exposures to particulate die-sel exhaust. Aerosol Science and Technology. Oct 1996;25(3):221-241. Doi:10.1080/02786829608965393
39. Ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. European Parliament legislative resolution of 24 April 2024 on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. European Parliament 24 April 2024.
40. WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines. Particulates (PM2,5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur diox-ide and carbon monoxide. ISBN 978-92-4-003422-8 (electronic version). World Health Organization 2021.
41. Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. Brussels, 26 10 2022
42. Janssen Nicole AH G-NME, Lanki Timo, Salonen Raimo O, Cassee Flemming, Hoek Gerarad, Fischer Paul, Brunekreef Bert, Krzyzanowski Michal. Health Effects of Black Carbon. 2012
43. Andersen ZJ, Gehring U, De Matteis S, et al. Clean air for healthy lungs - an urgent call to action: European Respiratory Society position on the launch of the WHO 2021 Air Quality Guidelines. European Respiratory Journal. Dec 2021;58(6)2102447. Doi:10.1183/13993003.02447-2021
44. Niranjan R, Thakur AK. The Toxicological Mechanisms of Environmental Soot (Black Carbon) and Carbon Black: Focus on Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Pathways. Frontiers in Immunology. Jun 2017;8763. Doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00763
45. Rider CF, Carlsten C. Air pollution and DNA methylation: effects of exposure in humans. Clinical Epigenetics. Sep 2019;11(1)131. Doi:10.1186/s13148-019-0713-2
46. Lack DA, Moosmüller H, McMeeking GR, et. al. Characterizing elemental, equivalent black, and refractory black carbon aerosol particles: a review of techniques, their limitations and uncertainties. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2014; 406:99–122. Doi: 10.1007/s00216-013-7402-3
47. Regione Emilia-Romagna. Piano Regionale della Prevenzione 2021-2025. Buone pratiche per la riduzione e il contenimento dell'esposizione a gas di scarico diesel nelle attività di autofficina. 2023
48. Plato N, Lewné M, Gustavsson P. A historical job-exposure matrix for occupational exposure to diesel exhaust using elemental carbon as an indicator of exposure. Arch Environ Occup Health. 2020;75(6):321-332. Doi:10.1080/19338244.2019.1644277
49. Perrino C, Catrambone M, Canepari S. Chemical Composition of PM10 in 16 Urban, Industrial and Background Sites in Italy. Atmosphere. May 2020;11(5)479. Doi:10.3390/atmos11050479
50. Di Ianni A, Costabile F, Barnaba F, et al. Black Carbon Aerosol in Rome (Italy): Inference of a Long-Term (2001-2017) Record and Related Trends from AERONET Sun-Photometry Data. Atmosphere. Mar 2018;9(3)81. Doi:10.3390/atmos9030081
51. ARPAE. Agenzia per la Prevenzione l'Ambiente e l'Energia dell'Emilia Romagna. La qualità dell'aria in Emi-lia Romagna. Edizione 2023
52. Sandrini S, Fuzzi S, Piazzalunga A, et al. Spatial and seasonal variability of carbonaceous aerosol across Italy. Atmospheric Environment. Dec 2014;99:587-598. Doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.10.032
53. Vermeulen R, Portengen L. How serious are we about protecting workers health? The case of diesel engine exhaust. Occup Environ Med. Aug 2022;79(8):540-542. Doi:10.1136/oemed-2021-107752
54. Vermeulen R, Silverman DT, Garshick E, Vlaanderen J, Portengen L, Steenland K. Exposure-Response Esti-mates for Diesel Engine Exhaust and Lung Cancer Mortality Based on Data from Three Occupational Cohorts. En-vironmental Health Perspectives. Feb 2014;122(2):172-177. Doi:10.1289/ehp.1306880
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Folesani G, Gherardi M, Galetti M, Petronini PG, De Pasquale F, Cavallo D, et al. Critical Issues in Assessing Occupational Exposure to Diesel Dust Exhaust. Med Lav [Internet]. 2024 Aug. 27 [cited 2024 Oct. 5];115(4):e2024029. Available from: https://mail.mattioli1885journals.com/index.php/lamedicinadellavoro/article/view/16100
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How to Cite
1.
Folesani G, Gherardi M, Galetti M, Petronini PG, De Pasquale F, Cavallo D, et al. Critical Issues in Assessing Occupational Exposure to Diesel Dust Exhaust. Med Lav [Internet]. 2024 Aug. 27 [cited 2024 Oct. 5];115(4):e2024029. Available from: https://mail.mattioli1885journals.com/index.php/lamedicinadellavoro/article/view/16100
